Choose a passage from the McIntyre reading that describes a particular aspect of persons as the subject of a narrative. Quote the passage, explain it, and tell a specific, personal, life experience that illustrates its significance with respect to identity (your identity).

“I am forever whatever I have been for others, and I may at any time be called to answer for it, no matter how changed I may be now. There is no way of founding my identity, or lack of it, on the psychological continuity or discontinuity of the self. The self inhabits a character whose unity is given as the unity of a character.”

McIntyre’s quote means your identity is judged based on your actions of the past whether good or bad. Your identity is made up of all your past decisions. When he says you have to answer for it he means if someone brings it up you can’t act like it never happened. You need to embrace it because people never forget. People will always judge sometimes only based on the bad things we have done. When he talks about founding your identity he means you cannot figure out who you are if you do not have confidence of yourself. If you are unsure of yourself, your identity will be unsure.

I can relate to this passage because I have been very unsure of myself especially lately. It is hard to find myself as a person when I am unsure of myself. I get stuck in the past sometimes and the decisions I made. Becoming a mom at such a young age, for example, is something that I have been struggling with lately. I chose to get pregnant but it has slowed the process down of getting college finished. It is very hard to focus and stay motivated when a little person needs your attention all the time. This is not to say that I am regretting it in any way but I am just struggling with it at the moment. I am very appreciative of my son and I know how lucky I am to have him. But I also acknowledge that I have some struggles with it. It is also hard seeing people I graduated high school with have already graduated college. If I were to complain about it, people might say well you chose to do it so you have to live with it now. To them I say, I know and I will get it done and finish strong. I will eventually learn to embrace my past.

Word Count: 400

Hume believes that the self is an illusion or a fiction. What is his argument? Do you find it convincing? Why or why not?

Hume is arguing that our life is made up of our different perceptions of reality and because everyone perceives things in their own individual way nothing is really reality it is all just a “movie” to us. Hume says “The mind is a kind of theatre, where several perceptions successively make their appearance.” It is the way we see things or our perception of our reality that causes us to make the decisions that we do.

Hume believes that our identity of self is based on our memory. He breaks it down into two principles of association. The first Hume says “Concerning resemblance, the memory not only discovers the identity, but also contributes to its production by producing the relation of resemblance among the perceptions.” By this he means that the thoughts we have in the present are based off of or resemble the memories we have from the past. The second Hume says “concerning causation the memory does not so much produce as discover personal identity, by shewing us the relation of cause and effect among our different perceptions.” By this he means when we let our past control who we are, it changes our future. We become what we believe we have done.

I found Hume’s argument very convincing. He gave me a different take on how we form our self identity. I know we all battle with not letting the past create who we become for our future. Sometimes I find myself stuck on thinking about the past and the things I could have done different. It puts me in a depression and makes it hard to stay motivated sometimes. This can stop me from accomplishing my goals because I start to feel bad about myself and start to think I can’t do things. Hume’s thoughts about how our reality is fake because everyone sees things in their own way, really gave me a new perspective. It makes sense because my life and the choices I have made are way different than that of others because they did not see the things I saw in the way that I saw them. I really enjoyed the way he explained this. I was also fascinated by his idea that if when we are sleeping, we are not perceiving, so how can we tell we really exist? This is not something that I ever thought of before but I suppose that’s because I am not a philosopher. This is a very deep question.

Word Count: 412 words

What is existential humanism? Discuss what Sartre means by abandonment, anguish, and despair. How does an individual marriage commit humanity to monogamy? What give life purpose, according to Sartre? Do you agree? What makes your life meaningful?

Existential humanism declares that existence came before essence. Sartre believes that a person’s being is made up of the person’s actions and feelings rather than just existing because we are born. It is the idea that man makes himself what he wills to be. The actions that we take today will determine the course of our existence. Sartre says there are two kinds of human existentialists – the Christian/Catholic existentialist and the Atheist existentialist. He considers himself the latter. Christian existentialists believe that God produced or created our existence. Atheist existentialists don’t believe it is God but they do believe there is at least one being who’s existence comes before it’s essence. How else could the world have been created?

Sartre describes anguish as when someone has to make a choice for themselves but they do not want to compare it to what others would do – it is a condition of our actions. Sartre says “When a man commits himself to anything, fully realizing that he is not only choosing what he will be, but is thereby at the same time a legislator deciding for the whole of mankind – in such a moment a man cannot escape from the sense of complete and profound responsibility.” He is saying it is when a person realizes that the decisions they make help to set the standard for the decisions of others in our society. The individual marriage committing the world to monogamy falls into this category because if other people see you getting married and staying faithful to one person, they will believe that is what they should have so they will go ahead and find someone to marry. People lead by example, so if they see someone doing something they didn’t think was okay before then they might see that as something they can do. That is a lot of stress to put on one person’s shoulders, so of course that would cause anguish because we all should want to do the right thing.

Sartre describes abandonment by claiming that God does not exist and some even say that we should throw out the idea of God all together and get back to our norms of honesty, humanity, and progress. Sartre says “Nor, on the other hand, if God does not exist, are we provided with any values or commands that could legitimise our behaviour. Thus we have neither behind us, nor before us in a luminous realm of values, any means of justification or excuse. – We are left alone, without excuse.” This being left alone that he speaks of is what he describes as abandonment.

Sartre describes despair as acting without hope, or understanding that things may not happen the way you think they will. It is to act, not as though you know everything, but as you can take it all in stride. You must count on your comrades but also not expect that they will always be there for you. It is an uncertainty that we must live with but it should make us stronger.

My family makes my life meaningful but also my passion to finish school. I want to be my own individual person and do things for myself rather than doing everything for everyone else. Starting my career and taking a deep breath will also make my life meaningful.

Word Count: 555 words

What does it mean to be a person, according to Frankfurt? Explain the order of desires, and how they are related to freedom of will. Give your own examples of each order of desire. Is this a useful way to understand freedom? Are you currently free, according to Frankfurt’s definitions?

According to Frankfurt, to be a person, you must have the ability to have first order desires and also have the desire to be effective in your first order desires which would be called “second order volitions.” This ability is what separates humans from other creatures on our beautiful planet Earth. First order desires are something that most species experience. For example, if a bear desires to catch a fish, that would be considered a first order desire but they do not have the capacity to want to be effective in catching the fish. It is only their instinct to catch the fish because animals act on instinct. Now, let’s say I (as a human) have the desire to finish college strong. This is something I really want to do so it would be my second order volition to desire to be effective in finishing college strong. It is this second order volition, which motivates people to take action on their desires, that relates to the freedom of will.

Frankfurt believes to be a person, it is also essential to not have any second order desires. Let’s say I wanted to do yoga more often, but I don’t actually want to do more yoga. Since I am a human I have the capacity to have the second order desire which would be that I desire the desire to do more yoga. Frankfurt says “It is logically possible, however unlikely, that there should be an agent with second order desires but with no volitions of the second order Such a creature, in my view, would not be a person.” (Pg. 11) If we have this mind set, Frankfurt believes we can’t really be a person because we are not free. He would call this person a wanton. We make ourselves slaves to our own minds when we cannot motivate ourselves to accomplish the things we truly want to accomplish. We should want to be effective in all desires that we possess. We should want to take control of our lives and do great things because we don’t live for that long. This is a useful way to understand freedom because our thoughts and desires are what motivate us to take action. If we can’t stay motivated then we cannot be free or have free will. If we do not have free will then are you really a person?This brings me to conclude that I am free, according to Frankfurt’s definition because I can choose to stay motivated and be effective in making my first order desires become reality.

Word Count: 427 words

Tolstoy uses the test of infectiousness, not only as a descriptive measure for what should count as art, but also as a standard for good art (#28-32). What does he mean by this standard? How does he suggest we apply this test to evaluate art? Is this a useful proposal for evaluating the quality of art? If you disagree with this proposal, how would you challenge it?

In his work, Tolstoy conveys the message that art needs to move people. The artist must create a piece full of meaning and emotion that people can connect to. He believes art should bring people together in unity to relate to the meaning of the piece. So many people in this world are feeling isolated, they need something that will help them overcome that isolation and feel like they are part of that which is bigger than themselves. Something that is so great it influences a lot of people but he also wants something that can make the audience feel the way the artist felt when creating his/her work.

He suggests we apply this test to evaluate by checking three things. The first is how original the feeling is that the art gives its viewers. Tolstoy says “on the greater or lesser individuality of the feeling transmitted.” He means raw feeling, like personal kind of feelings that the artist is sharing – a personal story or experience of some kind. The second is how clear the feelings are shared. When Tolstoy says “on the greater or lesser clearness with which the feeling is transmitted,” he is asking has the artist conveyed these feelings in such a way that the viewer is feeling them also? Using great detail and writing from the deepest depths of your soul is the way to best convey the feelings to your audience. The third is how sincere the artist is when he/she creates their piece of work. Tolstoy says “on the sincerity of the artist, I.e., on the greater or lesser force with which the artist himself feels the emotions he transmits.” He means that using the personal experiences to connect with the viewer is an essential part of what makes it art. I believe this is a useful proposal for evaluating the quality of art because art should evoke natural, pure emotion. The whole point of art is the meaning behind the work you are trying to share with the world. It is how you want the world to see it through your eyes. When you create something from all the emotions and feelings inside of your body, something amazing will come out. It has to be raw and original.

405 words

How does Existenz, the film, fit into Plato’s hierarchical scheme of reality? How does the game, Trancendenz fit?

When the film eXistenZ began, the audience is made to believe that the characters are in the film’s physical world. By the end of the film, it is revealed that it was not the physical world but the game’s simulation of the physical world. There are a lot of similarities between the film and Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave.” The volunteers in the beginning are hooked up to these slave pods which I believe are a metaphor for the prisoners of the cave. Their bodies are taken over through the game. The volunteers are similar to the prisoners also because they are made to believe this is their version of reality or the physical world but it isn’t. In Plato’s hierarchal scheme of reality, the game designer Mr. Nourish’s idea of the game tranCendeZ is supposedly the real or physical world. The game itself is the copy of reality and the game simulation eXistenZ is a copy of the copy of reality.

The scene that stood out the most to me in regard to Plato’s idea of our senses taking over our bodies is when Ted orders the special at the Chinese restaurant and his character takes over his body and he starts building the tooth gun out of the amphibian bones then he says he feels an impulse to kill the waiter. In Allegory of a Cave, Plato says “And if it were possible to lay hands on and to kill the man who tried to release them and lead them up, would they not kill him?” In the movie, Allegra and Ted are prisoners to their own senses. That is why he feels the urge to shoot the man that they believed was there to help them. There are many layers to this film, so many so that it is questionable if they were ever in the physical world or if they were in the simulation throughout the film. Towards the end when Allegra and Ted go back to the ski chalet and the guy from the game shop is in army gear and he shoots the game pod. They start to realize that they are still in the game simulation and then before you know it, you realize that the whole thing was a simulation. Then you see someone, a character from the game just when you think they are in the physical world it all becomes a question. By the end of the movie, I was sitting there wondering if we are even in the physical world or a simulation. How can anyone really tell?

429 words

Explain the characteristics of a belief that is live, forced, and momentous. Give examples for each. What kind of belief fits all three? Has James found an exception to Clifford’s standard for belief? Do you agree more with Clifford or James?

Live Belief

• Characteristics: Both hypotheses are alive.
• Example: Asking a kid to “ride his bike or play with a soccer ball” – both are likely to pique his interest.

Forced Belief

• Characteristics: There is no way of avoiding the options, no possibility of not choosing.
• Example: When I was younger and driving in the car with my dad, I used to tell him I didn’t want to listen to his music. He would respond by saying “this is my car so either listen to my music or don’t ride in it.”

Momentous Belief

• Characteristics: A unique opportunity that cannot and should not be passed up.
• Example: If a friend offered you an all-expenses paid vacation to Costa Rica that is something you just cannot pass up or else you lose out on the whole amazing experience.

A belief that fits all three is religion. Religion is live because it is likely that it appeals to people in many forms. Religion is forced because whether we choose to believe it or not, it still affects us. There are a lot of congregations who work hard every day to bring people into their religion and gain new followers. At least once a month, people come to my door to try and get me to convert. It is all around us, we cannot avoid it. Religion is momentous because it makes a big difference in our lives if we accept it or not. If we choose to accept it in our lives, we must live by the rules of the religion. This might include no sex before marriage, certain religions also force women to wear modest clothing, and most religions do not accept gay or trans people. Some of the most natural things are considered wrong or blasphemous to those that have written the rules for these religions. I believe James has found an exception to Clifford’s standard for belief, especially when he says “a certain lightness of heart seems healthier than this excessive nervousness on their behalf. (James Pg.2)” I have spent a lot of time living in the past, thinking of the mistakes I made and how I wished I could go back and correct it. I know it can be difficult to let go and accept the things that you cannot change but we must try hard in doing so. That is why I agree more with James – I feel it is better to learn from your mistakes than to make yourself a prisoner of your own mind. No one wants to live in fear of believing lies.

430 words

Reconstruct one of his arguments (not the examples) in standard form. Then evaluate that argument for soundness and validity. What practical significance does Clifford’s thesis have? Do you see any fallacies in Clifford’s reasoning?

Argument Reconstruction in Standard Form

1. “It is the sense of power attached to a sense of knowledge that makes men desirous of believing, and afraid of doubting.” WK Clifford Pg.5
2. “This sense of power is the highest and best of pleasures when the belief on which it is founded is a true belief, and has been fairly earned by investigation.” WK Clifford Pg.5
3. Conclusion: [Therefore], “if the belief has been accepted on insufficient evidence, the pleasure is a stolen one.” WK Clifford Pg.5

Soundness and Validity

My translation from Clifford’s argument is that knowledge brings power and if the knowledge you believe to be true is based on insufficient evidence then, in fact, you do not possess the knowledge or power because they are stolen from you by the person who shared the insufficient evidence. In my opinion, this argument is sound because it is true that being knowledgeable makes one feel powerful. It is also true that one feels even more powerful when the belief they are knowledgeable about is backed with evidence and if it is not then they are no longer knowledgeable about that belief. I’m not sure if I structured the argument the right way but I believe his argument is valid because the premises support each other and lead up to the conclusion that if the belief has insufficient evidence then it takes away the pleasure of having that knowledge and power.

Practical Signifigance Example

Clifford’s thesis is that it is wrong for anyone to believe anything based on insufficient evidence. Suppose you were a juror in a murder trial where the defendant is a 16-year old boy who murdered his father. Based on the evidence you received, all signs point to the boy being guilty. But when the boy gives his final statement, you feel that he is sincere and is not guilty. It is a lot on one’s conscience when they are deciding the fate of such a young soul. So, imagine how heinous it would be for the A.D.A. to hide that they found a small trace of a fingerprint on the murder weapon from a second suspect whom they did not name (the boy’s uncle who is the father’s brother – aged 60). This young man is having his whole future ruined because they gave insufficient evidence. Given that there was insufficient evidence, it would be wrong to convict him.

Fallacies in Clifford’s Reasoning

I found that Clifford had a lot of slippery slope fallacies. The main slippery slope fallacy I found was: “No real belief, however trifling and fragmentary it may seem, is ever truly insignificant; it prepares us to receive more of its
like, confirms those which resembled it before, and weakens others; and so gradually it lays a stealthy train in
our inmost thoughts, which may some day explode into overt action, and leave its stamp upon our character for
ever.”

485 words

Give your own, original examples for the following ten fallacies, plus two additional fallacies of your own choice (for a total of 12): 1) Begging the Question 2) Ad Hominem 3) Equivocation 4) Slippery Slope 5) Straw Man 6) Tu Quoque 7) Non-sequitur 8) False Dichotomy 9) Argument from ignorance 10) Red Herring

Begging the Question

• God is real because the bible says so and God wrote the bible so it has to be true.

Ad Hominem

• Elizabeth Warren has no idea what she is talking about when it comes to the impeachment because she is a woman.

Equivocation

• All trees are covered in bark. Every dog has a different bark. Therefore, every dog is a tree.

Slippery Slope

• If we allow the President to make decisions to attack other countries without consulting anyone, what’s next? He’s going to start an all out war.

Straw Man

• Those who are pro choice are allowing women to murder their own babies.

Tu Quoque

• You’re telling me not to smoke weed? Look at you with your pain pills and beer.

Non-Sequitur

• Cancer has been around since before cigarettes were invented so smoking can’t cause cancer.

False Dichotomy

• It’s 3pm and you haven’t showered yet today? You must be a dirty person.

Argument from Ignorance

• No one has ever told me Santa isn’t real so he must be real.

Red Herring

• My little brother got caught sneaking out. When confronted by my dad, he starts talking about how unfair it is that his curfew is only 9pm.

Bandwagon

• Telling someone that a song is good because it has so many views on Youtube.

Anecdotal Evidence

• I started highlighting my notes and I started getting high scores on my test. Therefore, if I highlight my notes I will always get high scores on my tests.

247 words

1. Give your own, original example of a valid argument with a false conclusion.
2. Give your own, original example of a sound argument.
3. Give your own, original example of a weak inductive argument.
4. Give your own original example of a strong inductive argument.

Valid Argument with a False Conclusion

1. All shapes have sides.
2. A circle is a shape.
3. A circle has sides.

Sound Argument

1. If the road is made of dirt, then chickens will cross it.
2. The road is made of dirt.
3. Therefore, the chickens will cross it.

Weak Inductive Argument

1. Some clowns are nice.
2. It is a clown.
3. It is nice.

Strong Inductive Argument

1. The grass grows when I water it.
2. I watered the grass.
3. It will grow.

88 words